Beta Carotene 25,000 IU by 21st Century

EFFECTIVE

• Vitamin A deficiency. Oral vitamin A is effective for treatment and prevention of vitamin A deficiency. Details: Clinical and observational research in children shows that taking vitamin A orally is effective for preventing and improving symptoms of vitamin A deficiency, including xerophthalmia, night blindness, and Bitot's spots (82329,82689,82710,90773). Vitamin A deficiency can occur due to abnormal storage and transport of vitamin A in people with abetalipoproteinemia, protein deficiency, diabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism, fever, liver disease, and cystic fibrosis (7135). However, research suggests that supplementation with vitamin A may not be necessary for most newborns with vitamin A deficiency. An observational study in newborns with vitamin A levels of 0.43-0.59 mcmol/L or >0.59 mcmol/L found that vitamin A levels increased naturally over the first six months of life, regardless of oral vitamin A supplementation. However, in infants with very low vitamin A levels (<0.43 mcmol/L), vitamin A supplementation was associated with significant increases in vitamin A levels at 6 months of age when compared with no supplementation, suggesting that only newborns with very low vitamin A levels should receive oral vitamin A (107298).

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Aging skin. Topical vitamin A (retinol) formulations seem to improve symptoms of aging skin, such as wrinkles and mottled pigmentation. Details: The vitamin A analog tretinoin (Renova) is a prescription drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for adjunctive use in reducing fine wrinkles, hyperpigmentation, and tactile roughness of aging facial skin (103711). However, this drug is not interchangeable with non-prescription, commercially available vitamin A products, which have not been as extensively evaluated in clinical research. Although research evaluating non-prescription topical vitamin A shows benefit for reducing wrinkles, most studies have been small and used different formulations. One small study in adults over 40 years of age shows that applying a pea size amount of 0.075% retinol cream to the face daily for 26 weeks seems to reduce deep and fine wrinkling when compared with placebo. Applying a lower dose of 0.04% retinol cream for 13 weeks seems to reduce fine wrinkling to a lesser degree, with no effect on deep wrinkles, when compared with placebo cream (104458). Another small clinical study in adults over 80 years of age shows that applying 2 mL of retinol 0.4% lotion to the upper arm up to 3 times weekly for 24 weeks reduces visible wrinkles when compared with placebo (94683). Two small studies in females ages 33 to 65 show that applying retinol 0.15%, 0.3% and 0.5% in liquid crystal formulation once daily to the face for 2-3 months improves skin pigmentation, elasticity, and wrinkles when compared with baseline (103680,104464). The validity of these two studies is limited by the lack of a comparator treatment. Topical vitamin A is frequently combined with other ingredients in commercial formulations; however these combinations have rarely been studied. A small clinical study in adults over 35 years with skin aging shows that applying a cream containing retinol 0.5%, niacinamide, resveratrol, and hexylresorcinol seems to improve wrinkling and skin tone when compared with baseline (104455). Another small preliminary clinical trial in adults ages 35-65 years with periorbital lines and wrinkles shows that applying a cream containing retinol modestly improves dryness, puffiness, redness, and darkness when compared with baseline. The retinol was conjugated with lactic acid, and the cream contained other nutrient and herbal ingredients It was applied around the eyes each evening, sometimes used in combination with another product each morning (109747).
• Bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Intramuscular vitamin A may reduce the risk of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) in very low birth weight infants when given at a dose of 5000 IU three times weekly for 28 days. Lower doses do not seem to be effective. It is unclear if enteral vitamin A is beneficial for BPD. Details: A meta-analysis of 6 clinical trials in premature infants shows that intramuscular administration of vitamin A every other day or three times weekly for 28 days reduces the risk of BPD by around 33% when compared with control (107297). The results from this meta-analysis are primarily driven by a modestly sized clinical trial in very low birth weight infants which shows that intramuscular administration of vitamin A 5000 IU three times weekly for 28 days reduces the risk of BPD by 15% when compared with a sham control (82195). A subgroup analysis of this trial suggests that infants with the lowest BPD risk estimate based on gestational age, birth weight, sex, ethnicity, and oxygen levels 24 hours after birth appear to benefit more from vitamin A therapy than those with higher BPD risk estimates (107296). Previous research in this area utilized a lower dose of only 2000 IU every other day for 28 days, and showed no significant improvement in the rate of BPD (82331,82613). The evaluation of a higher dose was prompted by research noting that the lower doses evaluated in these earlier studies were unable to achieve serum retinol concentrations above 25 mcg/dL, while doses at or above 5000 IU three times weekly could reach this level (82731). Enteral vitamin A has also been investigated. Meta-analyses of two clinical trials show that supplementation with vitamin A at an average of 5,000 IU daily, staring within four days of birth, does not reduce the incidence of BPD when compared with placebo (109750,109753).
• Diarrhea. Vitamin A seems to reduce the incidence of diarrhea in young children. However, it is unclear if oral vitamin A while breastfeeding is beneficial for preventing diarrhea in nursing infants. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research in children up to age 5 shows that vitamin A supplementation reduces the incidence of diarrhea by 15% and mortality related to diarrhea by 12% when compared with control, usually placebo or no supplementation (109755). However, one small clinical trial in breastfeeding parents shows that supplementation of vitamin A 1800 IU and ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) 600 IU daily for 2 months does not reduce the risk of diarrhea in the nursing infants when compared with placebo (107293).
• Measles. High-dose oral vitamin A seems to reduce mortality from measles in children under 2 years of age and may also reduce the incidence of measles in children up to 5 years of age. Details: Meta-analyses of clinical research show that taking vitamin A does not reduce mortality in children with measles when all ages and/or doses are considered (82373,82502,95055,109755). However, in children with measles who are less than 2 years of age, taking vitamin A 200,000 IU orally for at least two doses seems to reduce mortality by up to 83% when compared with placebo (82373,82502). Also, taking vitamin A seems to reduce the incidence of measles in children ages 6 months to 5 years (95055,109755).
• Night vision. Oral vitamin A as retinyl palmitate seems to reduce night blindness during pregnancy in malnourished patients. Details: Clinical research shows that taking vitamin A (as retinyl palmitate) 23,000 IU weekly before and during pregnancy reduces pregnancy-related night blindness by 37% in malnourished patients (6154). Some evidence suggests that zinc supplements might potentiate the effects of vitamin A in restoring sight in zinc-deficient pregnant patients affected by night blindness (8630).
• Oral leukoplakia. High-dose oral vitamin A seems to reduce oral leukoplakia lesions in patients that chew tobacco and/or betel nut. Details: Clinical research in patients with tobacco and/or betel nut chewing habits shows that taking oral vitamin A 200,000-300,000 IU weekly for 6-12 months seems to result in remission of leukoplakia lesions in over 50% of participants when compared with placebo (34674,82617). However, it is unknown if vitamin A prevents the development of oral cancer from oral leukoplakia lesions.
• Overall mortality. In children at risk for vitamin A deficiency, oral vitamin A seems to reduce mortality. However, it does not seem to reduce mortality in healthy adults. Details: Despite previous debate on whether the programs supplying high-dose vitamin A in low- and middle-income countries with prevalent vitamin A deficiency are safe and effective for reducing child mortality, most experts, including World Health Organization, recommend high-dose vitamin A supplementation for those children (95055,95724,97170,109755). In 2010, a meta-analysis of 17 trials involving over 194,000 patients, showed that vitamin A supplementation reduces all-cause mortality by about 24% in children 6 months to 5 years of age (82559). However, some research published after this meta-analysis shows conflicting results (90773,90777). In fact, the largest clinical trial conducted to date (Deworming and Enhanced Vitamin A; DEVTA), which was published after the analysis and involved one million preschool children, suggests that high-dose vitamin A supplementation does not reduce mortality (90773). However, this trial was limited due to under-resourcing and undetermined patient consent and treatment compliance (90773). Furthermore, in 2017, a meta-analysis including the DEVTA trial along with 46 additional studies involving over 1.2 million preschool children, shows that vitamin A supplementation does reduce all-cause mortality by 12% when compared with control (95055). This meta-analysis was updated in 2022 with no additional studies or changes in conclusions (109755). Adult mortality is not reduced by vitamin A supplementation. In fact, some evidence even shows that vitamin A supplementation increases mortality when administered to healthy adult patients or those with a stabilized disease (15305,34622,90775).
• Postpartum complications. Oral vitamin A seems to reduce postpartum diarrhea and mortality in malnourished patients. Details: A large clinical study in malnourished pregnant patients in Nepal shows that taking vitamin A (as retinyl palmitate) 23,000 IU weekly before, during, and after pregnancy reduces the occurrence of blood and mucus in the stool by 93% and the occurrence of diarrhea by up to 90% during the first 6 months postpartum when compared with placebo (2581). Another clinical study in the same population shows that taking vitamin A (as retinyl palmitate) 23,000 IU weekly before and during pregnancy reduces pregnancy-related mortality by 40% when compared with placebo (6153).
• Retinitis pigmentosa. Oral vitamin A supplementation in children with retinitis pigmentosa seems to slow retinal function decline. Details: Observational and clinical research in children with retinitis pigmentosa shows that taking an age-adjusted dose of vitamin A, up to a maximum dose of 15,000 IU daily, modestly attenuates the decline in retinal function when compared with control (83,97167,103677).
• Ulcerative colitis. Oral vitamin A supplementation in patients with ulcerative colitis seems to improve clinical response and mucosal healing. Details: A clinical study in adults with symptomatic ulcerative colitis despite treatment with 5-aminosalicylic acid shows that taking vitamin A 25,000 IU daily for 2 months reduces disease severity and increases the rate of clinical response and mucosal healing when compared with placebo. The number needed to treat (NNT) for clinical response is 3; the NNT for mucosal healing is 5 (100329).
• Wrinkled skin. Topical vitamin A (retinol) formulations seem to improve photodamage and wrinkles. Details: The vitamin A analog tretinoin (Renova) is a prescription drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for adjunctive use in reducing fine wrinkles, hyperpigmentation, and tactile roughness of facial skin (103711). This drug is not interchangeable with non-prescription, commercially available vitamin A products, which have not been as extensively evaluated in clinical research. Still, some research in females ages 35-65 with moderately wrinkled and photoaged skin suggests that commercially available retinol formulations might reduce wrinkles and skin roughness similarly to tretinoin. One study used retinol serum starting at a concentration of 0.25% and increased to 1% over 3 months, compared with tretinoin cream 0.025% gradually increased to 0.1% (103671), while another study compared a gradual release tri-retinol 1.1% cream applied daily for 3 months to tretinoin 0.025% cream (104456). Commercial retinol also seems to be beneficial when compared with placebo. A small study in adults over 40 years old with photodamaged skin shows that applying stabilized retinol 0.1% to the face daily for one year improves wrinkles and mottled pigmentation in over 50% of the participants when compared with a placebo treatment (104463).

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Atopic disease. Supplementation with oral vitamin A does not seem to reduce the risk of atopy. Details: Clinical research in infants born in Guinea-Bissau shows that a single dose of vitamin A does not reduce the incidence of atopy when compared with placebo (90779,90780). Furthermore, giving a single dose of vitamin A to some infants, such as low birth weight infants and infants given Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccination, was associated with increased atopy and wheeze (90779).
• Fetal and premature infant mortality. Giving oral vitamin A to malnourished adults during pregnancy and postpartum does not seem to reduce fetal, early infant, or first year mortality. Giving oral or intramuscular vitamin A to the infant also does not seem to reduce mortality in most patients. Details: Most meta-analyses of clinical research in malnourished patients suggest that vitamin A supplementation during pregnancy or postpartum does not reduce fetal, early infant, or first year mortality (6152,34601,34602,34627,82479,82566,82567,90774,90776,90782,90784,95057,109750,109753). Also, giving vitamin A supplements or intramuscular vitamin A to low birth weight infants does not appear to reduce mortality in these patients (82195,82431,82498,90778,90781,95053,107296,107297). Furthermore, vitamin A supplementation in term infants from low or middle income countries also does not appear to reduce the risk of mortality at 6 or 12 months of age when compared with placebo (95054,103674). Some evidence from a meta-analysis of clinical research shows that vitamin A supplementation may reduce the risk of mortality at 6 months in Asian infants, although it appears to increase the risk of mortality at 6 months in studies conducted in Africa. It also appears to increase the risk of mortality in female term infants by 12 months (95054).
• Intestinal parasite infection. Oral high-dose vitamin A does not seem to prevent reinfection with intestinal parasites. Details: Clinical research in children living in Malaysia that were given albendazole 400 mg daily for 3-4 days for parasitic worms, shows that adding a single dose of vitamin A 200,000 IU does not help to prevent reinfection when compared with placebo (90772).
• Melanoma. Oral vitamin A in patients with resected melanoma does not seem to improve survival and disease recurrence. Details: A clinical study in patients with completely resected melanoma shows that taking vitamin A 100,000 IU daily for 18 months does not increase disease-free survival when compared with no supplementation (82670).
• Miscarriage. Oral vitamin A given to the mother does not prevent miscarriage or stillbirth. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research shows that maternal supplementation with oral vitamin A, either alone or in combination with other vitamins, prior to or during early pregnancy does not reduce the risk of miscarriage or stillbirth when compared with control (104462).
• Sepsis. Most research shows that oral vitamin A does not reduce the risk of sepsis in premature infants. Details: A meta-analysis of three clinical trials in premature infants shows that providing supplemental enteral vitamin A 1500-5000 IU daily, starting within four days of birth, does not reduce the incidence of sepsis when compared with placebo (109753).
• Tuberculosis. Oral vitamin A does not seem to improve tuberculosis disease duration or mortality. Details: Low levels of vitamin A are common in patients with tuberculosis. However, taking vitamin A 2000 IU to 200,000 IU by mouth for 2-24 months does not improve symptoms, decrease disease duration, or reduce mortality when compared with placebo in these patients (82570,103668,109754). This may be due to the fact that vitamin A levels may normalize following the initiation of tuberculosis treatment, even without additional vitamin A supplementation.

LIKELY INEFFECTIVE

• Head and neck cancer. Oral vitamin A taken for 2 years does not seem to improve survival or prevent head and neck cancer recurrence. Details: A large clinical study n patients with a history of head and neck cancer shows that taking vitamin A as retinyl palmitate 300,000 IU daily for 1 year, and followed by 150,000 IU daily for another year, does not reduce the risk of second primary tumors or tumor recurrence when compared with placebo. Also, vitamin A does not seem to improve survival or event-free survival (1710).
• HIV transmission. Oral vitamin A does not reduce vertical HIV transmission risk. There is some concern that vitamin A might increase HIV transmission through breast milk. Details: Observational and intervention research shows that taking vitamin A orally does not decrease the risk of HIV transmission to the fetus during pregnancy, to newborns during delivery, or to infants during early breast-feeding (6376,82470,95059). Preliminary clinical research also shows that vitamin A supplementation of pregnant adults with HIV infection might increase the risk of HIV transmission to their babies through breast milk (9801).
• Lower respiratory tract infections. Oral vitamin A does not reduce the risk for lower respiratory tract infections in children. It is unclear if supplementation of oral vitamin A while breast-feeding reduces the risk of lower respiratory tract infections in nursing infants. Details: Taking vitamin A by mouth does not prevent or reduce symptoms of lower respiratory tract infections, such as cough and fever, in children (82288,82443). Furthermore, some research shows that vitamin A is associated with a slight increase in the risk of respiratory tract infections when administered to children with adequate nutritional status (82288). Additionally, one small clinical trial in breast-feeding parents shows that supplementation of vitamin A 1800 IU and ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) 600 IU daily for 2 months does not reduce the risk of febrile illness or respiratory tract infections in the nursing infants when compared with placebo (107293).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Acne. Although prescription vitamin A analogs are approved to treat acne, it is unclear if non-prescription topical vitamin A products help with acne symptoms. Details: The high-dose vitamin A analogs adapalene (Differin) and tazarotene (Tazorac) are prescription drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of acne (103712,103713). These drugs are not interchangeable with non-prescription, commercially available vitamin A products, such as retinol, which have not been extensively evaluated in clinical research. A small preliminary clinical trial in adolescents and young adults with mild to moderate acne shows that applying topical benzoyl peroxide 2.5% each morning and a topical retinol plus salicylic acid product each evening for 12 weeks modestly improves acne severity and other measures of complexion when compared with baseline. All patients also used the same cleanser twice daily (109748). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Alcohol-related liver disease. Oral vitamin A has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in patients with acute alcoholic hepatitis shows that taking vitamin A in combination with coenzyme Q10 and other vitamins and minerals daily for 6 months does not improve survival when compared with placebo (61392).
• Asthma. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for preventing asthma in children. Details: An observational study in children has found that higher dietary intake of vitamin A is associated with a lower risk of asthma. Children in the highest quartile of vitamin A intake (median of 2267 IU daily) at 7 years of age had improved lung function and 32% lower odds of asthma at 11-14 years of age when compared with children in the lowest quartile of vitamin A intake (median of 870 IU daily) (107291).
• Atopic dermatitis (eczema). It is unclear if supplementation of oral vitamin A while breast-feeding is beneficial for preventing eczema in nursing infants. Details: One small clinical trial in breast-feeding parents shows that supplementation of vitamin A 1800 IU and ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) 600 IU daily for 2 months does not reduce the risk of eczema in the nursing infants when compared with placebo (107293).
• Autism spectrum disorder. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for improving symptoms of autism. Details: Children with autism spectrum disorder are at increased risk for vitamin A deficiency, and vitamin A levels have been inversely associated with autism symptoms. Preliminary clinical research shows that taking a single dose of vitamin A 200,000 IU slightly improves emotional response, communication, and other symptoms when compared to baseline (97168). The lack of a control group limits the validity of these findings. Another preliminary clinical study in children with autism and vitamin A deficiency shows that taking vitamin A 50,000 IU weekly for 6 months, but not as a single dose of 200,000 IU, seems to improve social impairment scores when compared with control. Controls were children with autism without vitamin A deficiency that did not take a supplement (104459).
• Breast cancer. Although vitamin A intake has been associated with a reduced risk for breast cancer, it is unclear if vitamin A supplements are beneficial. Details: Epidemiological evidence has found an association between high intake of vitamin A and a reduced risk of breast cancer. A meta-analysis of epidemiological research has found that the adults with the highest intake of vitamin A, either from diet alone or also from supplements, reduces the odds of developing breast cancer by 16% when compared with the lowest intake (1444,34610,109752). However, the effects of supplemental vitamin A, specifically, are unclear.
• Cataracts. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for cataract prevention. Details: A large-scale population-based study has found that high dietary intake of vitamin A is associated with a reduced risk of nuclear cataracts (6378). Also, other population research has found that the highest dietary intake of vitamin A is associated with a 17% lower risk of cataracts when compared with the lowest intakes (90786). However, there is conflicting evidence regarding the association between blood levels of vitamin A and the risk of cataracts (90786,90944). It is not known if supplemental vitamin A is beneficial.
• Cervical cancer. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for cervical cancer prevention. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research shows that increased vitamin A levels in the blood or higher vitamin A intakes are associated with a reduced risk of cervical cancer. However, this effect is observed when both forms of vitamin A, either retinol or carotenoids, are considered. When only the retinol form is considered, vitamin A supplementation does not seem to reduce the risk of cervical cancer (34613,109752). Also, a meta-analysis of epidemiological research has found that vitamin A intake, either from diet alone or supplements, does not affect the risk of cervical cancer (109752).
• Chemotherapy-induced diarrhea. It is unclear if oral vitamin A helps to prevent diarrhea caused by chemotherapy. Details: A very small clinical study in children receiving chemotherapy shows that taking vitamin A orally does not seem to prevent GI adverse effects, including diarrhea and mouth pain, when compared with control (9802).
• Child development. Oral vitamin A might improve growth and development in children with vitamin A deficiency, but not in those with good nutritional status. Details: Supplementing with vitamin A 60 mg for up to 9 years does not promote or improve child growth in children with appropriate nutritional status (20132). However, in children with vitamin A deficiency, supplementation with vitamin A may improve growth (82246).
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). There is limited evidence on the oral use of vitamin A in patients with emphysema. Details: Observational research has found that consuming recommended amounts of vitamin A in the diet is associated with 33% lower odds of developing emphysema (103678).
• Colorectal adenoma. Oral vitamin A has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Clinical research shows that taking a combination supplement containing selenium, zinc, vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin E orally daily for 5 years or until the recurrence of an adenoma reduces the risk of recurrent large-bowel adenomas by about 40% when compared with placebo in patients with large-bowel adenomas (92903). It is not clear if this benefit is due to vitamin A or other constituents.
• Colorectal cancer. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for colorectal cancer prevention. Details: Taking vitamin A alone or in combination with beta-carotene does not seem to reduce the risk of colorectal cancer (12185).
• Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery. It is unclear if oral vitamin A improves recovery after CABG surgery. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking vitamin A 5000 IU daily (as retinol palmitate) for 21 days starting on the day of CABG surgery reduces time in intensive care after surgery by 46% to 69% compared to a control group not given vitamin A (90783). Supplementation with vitamin A also improves total hospitalization time for those patients with adequate zinc status (90783).
• Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for the treatment of mild to moderate COVID-19. Details: Clinical research in COVID-19 outpatients treated with hydroxychloroquine shows that taking vitamin A 25,000 IU daily for 10 days modestly reduces the number of patients with symptoms of fever, body ache, and fatigue when compared with placebo. However, there was no effect on the number of patients with cough, shortness of breath, lack of appetite, chest pain, diarrhea, loss of smell, or headache (109745).
• Depression. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for depression. Details: A meta-analysis of observational research has found that dietary intake of vitamin A is inversely associated with depression. The highest intake of vitamin A was associated with a 17% reduced risk of depression when compared with the lowest intake. Also, vitamin A intake was lower in individuals with depression (109743). The effect of vitamin A supplementation is unclear.
• Esophageal cancer. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for esophageal cancer prevention. Details: Observational research has found that higher beta-carotene and vitamin A intake is associated with a reduced risk of esophageal cancer (34551,103675). However, evidence from higher-quality clinical research shows that taking vitamin A in combination with beta-carotene does not reduce the risk of esophageal cancer (12185).
• Gastric cancer. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for gastric cancer prevention. Details: Taking vitamin A alone and in combination with beta-carotene does not seem to reduce the risk of gastric cancer (12185).
• Glaucoma. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for glaucoma prevention. Details: A meta-analysis of observational research has found that a high dietary intake of vitamin A is associated with a 37% reduced risk of glaucoma when compared with a low intake (109742).
• HIV/AIDS. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for improving HIV/AIDs outcomes. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical trials and population research shows that maternal vitamin A supplementation of mothers with poor vitamin A status at baseline does not influence child or maternal mortality, hospitalization rate, or HIV/AIDS progression. However, pediatric vitamin A supplementation seems to decrease mortality rates in children with HIV/AIDS when compared with placebo (34529,95059).
• HIV/AIDS-related diarrhea. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for preventing diarrhea associated with HIV. Details: A large clinical trial shows that taking vitamin A can decrease the rate of diarrhea-specific mortality by up to 92% in vitamin A-deficient children with or without HIV/AIDS (1465). However, a meta-analysis of clinical research shows that taking vitamin A does not significantly reduce diarrhea-specific mortality when only children with HIV/AIDS are considered (82511). But vitamin A does appear to reduce overall mortality in these children by 50% to 63% (1465,82511).
• Human papillomavirus (HPV). It is unclear if topical or oral vitamin A is beneficial for the resolution of genital warts caused by HPV. Details: A meta-analysis of small clinical trials in patients with genital warts suggests that the oral prescription drugs isotretinoin and etretinate might promote resolution of warts when compared with baseline. However, the topical prescription drug tretinoin 0.05% cream does not seem to help (104460). These drugs are not interchangeable with non-prescription, commercially available vitamin A products, such as retinol.
• Infant development. It is unclear if intramuscular vitamin A improves the development of low birth weight infants. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research shows that giving intramuscular vitamin A to very low birth weight infants reduces the risk of chronic lung disease at 36 weeks postmenstrual age by about 13% compared to control (95053). Preliminary clinical research also shows that giving intramuscular vitamin A along with inhaled nitric oxide gas for 3 weeks to low birth weight infants on mechanical ventilation might improve mental development at one year in some of these patients when compared with inhaled nitric oxide gas alone (90778). However, a meta-analysis of clinical research shows that intramuscular vitamin A does not improve neurodevelopment in very low birth weight infants (95053).
• Iron deficiency anemia. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for the prevention or treatment of anemia due to iron deficiency. Details: Some research in children and pregnant adults without anemia shows that taking vitamin A increases plasma levels of hemoglobin and ferritin, and may reduce the risk of developing anemia (9518,34627). However, another study in pregnant patients, half of whom had anemia at baseline and half of whom did not have anemia, shows that taking 3000 mcg retinol orally in combination with iron and folate does not improve hemoglobin or erythropoietin concentrations when compared with taking iron and folate (9188). In preterm infants with existing anemia, taking vitamin A 5000 IU and vitamin B complex 40 mg daily improves serum ferritin, hemoglobin, and reticulocyte levels and reduces the need for blood transfusions when compared with taking either vitamin alone. Taking vitamin A alone, however, does not improve these outcomes (100330).
• Leukemia. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for leukemia prevention. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with chronic myelogenous leukemia shows that taking a specific vitamin A product (Aquasol, Armour Pharmaceuticals) 50,000 IU orally daily in combination with busulfan therapy does not significantly increase progression-free survival or overall survival when compared with busulfan alone. Furthermore, supplementation with vitamin A plus busulfan seems to increase the percentage of patients who experience grade 2 toxicity by about 5-fold when compared with busulfan alone (82652).
• Liver cancer. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for liver cancer prevention. Details: Population research has found that vitamin A supplementation or serum levels of vitamin A are not associated with the risk of liver cancer (97169).
• Lung cancer. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for lung cancer treatment or prevention. Details: Population research has found that increased dietary intake of vitamin A is not associated with a reduced risk of lung cancer (35628). Furthermore, supplementation with vitamin A and beta-carotene seems to increase the risk of lung cancer in smokers or those exposed to asbestos (2642,34675). A large clinical trial in patients with existing lung cancer shows that vitamin A 300,000 IU daily for one year followed by 150,000 IU daily for a second year does not increase survival (1710). However, some clinical research shows that high-dose vitamin A 300,000 IU daily following curative lung cancer resection reduces the risk of new primary tumors in patients heavily exposed to tobacco (7875).
• Malaria. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for reducing symptoms of malaria in young children. Details: Taking vitamin A orally seems to help decrease symptoms of malaria in children less than 3 years of age living in endemic areas (1464). However, other clinical research shows that single doses of vitamin A 100,000 to 200,000 IU do not improve coma resolution, convulsions, fever, parasite clearance, or mortality in infants and children less than 5 years of age with cerebral malaria (90785).
• Multiple sclerosis-related fatigue. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for reducing fatigue in patients with multiple sclerosis. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis receiving interferon beta-1a shows that taking vitamin A 25,000 IU (as retinyl palmitate) (Zahravi Pharmaceutical) daily for 6 months followed by 10,000 IU daily for 6 months, improves physical, cognitive, and psychosocial fatigue when compared with placebo (95052).
• Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC). A meta-analysis of several small clinical trials suggests that intramuscular vitamin A does not seem to prevent NEC. Details: A meta-analysis of 3 small clinical studies in very low birth weight infants shows that intramuscular administration of vitamin A 1500-5000 IU every other day or three times weekly for 28 days does not reduce the risk of NEC when compared with a control (107297).
• Non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for non-Hodgkin lymphoma prevention. Details: Population research has found that intake of vitamin A at levels above 2330 mcg daily is associated with a 17% lower risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma when compared with those whose daily intake of vitamin A is less than 642 mcg per day (90945).
• Nonmelanoma skin cancer. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for nonmelanoma skin cancer prevention. Details: Observational research over 26 years found that higher dietary vitamin A intake is associated with a 12% reduced risk for cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma in healthy patients when compared with lower vitamin A intake (101673).
• Oral clefts. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for oral cleft prevention. Details: A meta-analysis of observational research has found that periconceptional use of vitamin A, from diet and/or supplements, is associated with a 13% reduced incidence of cleft lip alone or with a cleft palate, but is not associated with the risk of cleft palate alone, in the child (109751).
• Osteoarthritis. Oral vitamin A has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Clinical research in patients with osteoarthritis shows that taking a specific product containing vitamin A in combination with selenium, vitamin C, and vitamin E (Selenium ACE, Carls-Berghs Farmaceutiska AB) does not appear to alleviate symptoms when compared with placebo (74449).
• Ovarian cancer. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for ovarian cancer prevention. Details: Most observational research has found that increased dietary intake of vitamin A is associated with a reduced risk of developing ovarian cancer (9193,103679,109752). The most recent meta-analysis of epidemiological research has found that adults with the highest intake of vitamin A, either from diet alone or supplements, reduces the odds of developing ovarian cancer by 19% when compared with the lowest intake (109752).
• Pancreatic cancer. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for pancreatic cancer prevention. Details: A meta-analysis of observational research has found that higher intake of vitamin A is associated with a reduced risk of pancreatic cancer; however, this benefit appears to be limited to only hospital-based cases and studies conducted in Europe (95060). In contrast, a meta-analysis of clinical research shows that taking vitamin A in combination with beta-carotene does not reduce the risk of pancreatic cancer (12185).
• Parkinson disease. It is unclear if oral vitamin A prevents Parkinson disease development. Details: Population research has found that blood levels or dietary intake of vitamin A are not associated with the risk of Parkinson disease (91164).
• Photoreactive keratectomy. Oral vitamin A has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study shows that taking a specific product (Evitex capsules, Alcon) containing vitamin A along with vitamin E seems to improve healing after photoreactive keratectomy. High dose (50,000 to 75,000 IU) vitamin A in the form of retinol palmitate taken daily with vitamin E (alpha-tocopheryl nicotinate) 460-590 mg daily seems to accelerate re-epithelialization, reduce haze formation, and improve visual acuity in patients undergoing laser surgery for myopia (348).
• Pneumonia. Oral vitamin A does not seem to prevent mortality related to pneumonia in children. However, it is unclear if vitamin A reduces symptom severity and hospitalization in children. Details: Clinical research in children living in developing countries shows that taking vitamin A orally does not prevent mortality related to pneumonia (1466,82362,82504,82717,109749). However, the evidence related to symptom duration and severity is mixed. A large study and early meta-analyses show that vitamin A does not prevent pneumonia or decrease the severity or length of hospitalization in children with pneumonia (1466,82362,82504,82717). A more recent meta-analysis also shows that giving vitamin A to children at or below 5 years of age does not affect the duration of hospitalization (109755). The best evidence to date comes from a recent meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. This meta-analysis shows that, when given in combination with conventional therapy to children up to 10 years of age, vitamin A reduces the duration of symptoms including fever, cough, lung rale, and shortness of breath, as well as the duration of hospitalization and time to a negative X-ray, when compared with conventional therapy alone (109749). However, the number of trials evaluating each endpoint is small and more research is needed to confirm these findings.
• Prematurity. It is unclear if vitamin A reduces the duration of hospitalization for premature infants. Details: A meta-analysis of four randomized controlled trials in preterm infants shows that providing supplemental enteral vitamin A 1500-5000 IU daily, starting within four days of birth, does not reduce the duration of hospitalization when compared with placebo (109750).
• Prostate cancer. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for prostate cancer prevention. Details: Observational studies suggest that dietary intake of vitamin A is not associated with a reduced risk of prostate cancer (14134).
• Psoriasis. It is unclear if topical vitamin A is beneficial for psoriasis symptoms. Details: The vitamin A analog tazarotene (Tazorac) is a prescription drug that is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to treat stable plaque psoriasis covering up to 20% body surface area (103713). This drug is not interchangeable with non-prescription, commercially available vitamin A products, such as retinol.
• Radiation proctopathy. It is unclear if oral vitamin A is beneficial for reducing chronic radiation proctopathy symptoms. Details: A small clinical study in patients experiencing chronic radiation proctopathy caused by pelvic radiotherapy shows that taking retinol palmitate 10,000 IU daily for 90 days might reduce rectal symptoms when compared with placebo (82350).
• Retinopathy of prematurity. Most small studies show that oral or intramuscular vitamin A does not reduce the risk of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). Details: A meta-analysis of 4 small clinical studies in very low birth weight infants shows that intramuscular administration of vitamin A 2000-10,000 IU every other day or three times weekly, or oral vitamin A 2000 IU daily, for 28 days does not reduce the risk of ROP when compared with a control (107297). Another meta-analysis of clinical research shows that providing supplemental enteral vitamin A 1500 IU or an average of 5000 IU daily, starting within four days of birth, does not reduce the incidence of severe ROP (109750,109753). However, a very small clinical study in preterm infants, which was not included in the meta-analysis, shows that receiving retinol palmitate drops 3000 IU/kg daily for 28 days reduces the risk of ROP by 88% when compared with no treatment (103672).
• Urinary tract infections (UTIs). It is unclear if adding oral vitamin A to antibiotic therapy is beneficial for symptoms of acute pyelonephritis in young females. Details: A small clinical study in females 2-12 years of age with a first occurrence of acute pyelonephritis shows that taking vitamin A 1500 units/kg daily for 10 days in conjunction with antibiotics decreases the duration of fever by about 1.3 days and reduces urinary frequency by about 1.5 episodes per day when compared to taking placebo with antibiotics. Taking vitamin A might also reduce the occurrence of moderate or severe renal scarring after 6 months when compared with placebo (100327). The validity of these findings is limited by small study size and a high dropout rate.
• Warts. It is unclear if topical or oral vitamin A improves the resolution of viral warts. Details: A meta-analysis of observational and clinical research in patients with viral warts suggests that receiving prescription oral retinoids (isotretinoin, acitretin, etretinate) seems to produce a 61% rate of wart resolution. Prescription topical retinoids seems to produce a 64% rate of wart resolution (104461). These drugs are not interchangeable with non-prescription, commercially available vitamin A products, such as retinol. More evidence is needed to rate vitamin A for these uses.

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LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally or intramuscularly and appropriately. Vitamin A, as pre-formed vitamin A (retinol or retinyl ester), is safe in adults when taken in doses below the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 10,000 IU (3000 mcg) per day (7135). Higher doses increase the risk of side effects. There is also growing concern that taking high doses of antioxidants such as vitamin A might do more harm than good. In an analysis of studies, taking vitamin A supplements alone or in combination with other antioxidants is associated with an increased risk of mortality from all causes (15305,90775). Keep in mind that vitamin A is available in two different forms: pre-formed vitamin A (retinol or retinyl ester) and provitamin A (carotenoids). The safety concerns associated with high vitamin A intake occur with pre-formed vitamin A only. Some supplements contain vitamin A in both pre-formed and provitamin A forms. For these supplements, the amount of pre-formed vitamin A should be used to determine if the amount of vitamin A is safe.

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used topically and appropriately, short-term. Retinol 0.5% has been used on the skin daily for up to 12 weeks with apparent safety. No serious adverse effects have been reported in clinical trials (103671,103680).

POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when used orally in high doses. Doses higher than the UL of 10,000 IU (3000 mcg) per day of pre-formed vitamin A (retinol or retinyl ester) might increase the risk of side effects (7135). While vitamin A 25,000 IU (as retinyl palmitate) daily for 6 months followed by 10,000 IU daily for 6 months has been used with apparent safety in one clinical trial (95052), prolonged use of excessive doses of vitamin A can cause significant side effects such as hypervitaminosis A. The risk for developing hypervitaminosis A is related to total cumulative dose of vitamin A rather than a specific daily dose (1467,1469). There is also concern that taking high doses of antioxidants such as vitamin A might do more harm than good. In an analysis of studies, taking vitamin A supplements alone or in combination with other antioxidants is associated with an increased risk of mortality from all causes (15305,90775). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of using sublingual formulations of vitamin A.

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally or intramuscularly and appropriately. The amount of pre-formed vitamin A (retinol or retinyl ester) that is safe depends on age. For children up to 3 years of age, doses less than 2000 IU (600 mcg) per day seem to be safe. For children ages 4 to 8, doses less than 3000 IU (900 mcg) per day seem to be safe. For children ages 9 to 13, doses less than 5667 IU (1700 mcg) per day seem to be safe. For children 14 to 18, doses less than 9333 IU (2800 mcg) per day seem to be safe (7135). Keep in mind that vitamin A is available in two different forms: pre-formed vitamin A (retinol or retinyl ester) and provitamin A (carotenoids). The safety concerns associated with high vitamin A intake occur with pre-formed vitamin A only. Some supplements contain vitamin A in both pre-formed and provitamin A forms. For these supplements, the amount of pre-formed vitamin A should be used to determine if the amount of vitamin A is safe.

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when pre-formed vitamin A (retinol or retinyl ester) is used orally in excessive doses. For children up to 3 years of age, avoid doses greater than 2000 IU (600 mcg) per day. For children ages 4 to 8, avoid doses greater than 3000 IU (900 mcg) per day. For children ages 9 to 13, avoid doses greater than 5667 IU (1700 mcg) per day. For children ages 14 to 18, avoid doses greater than 9333 IU (2800 mcg) per day (7135). Higher doses of vitamin A supplementation have been associated with increased risk of side effects such as pneumonia, bone pain, and diarrhea (319,95051). Long-term supplementation with low to moderate doses on a regular basis can cause severe, but usually reversible, liver damage (11978).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally or intramuscularly and appropriately. Vitamin A, as pre-formed vitamin A (retinol or retinyl ester), is safe during pregnancy and lactation when used in doses less than 10,000 IU (3000 mcg) per day (7135,16823,107293). Keep in mind that vitamin A is available in two different forms: pre-formed vitamin A (retinol or retinyl ester) and provitamin A (carotenoids). The safety concerns associated with high vitamin A intake occur with pre-formed vitamin A only. Some supplements contain vitamin A in both pre-formed and provitamin A forms. For these supplements, the amount of pre-formed vitamin A should be used to determine if the amount of vitamin A is safe.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally or intramuscularly in excessive doses. Daily intake of greater than 10,000 IU (3000 mcg) can cause fetal malformations (3066,7135). Excessive dietary intake of vitamin A has also been associated with teratogenicity (11978). The first trimester of pregnancy seems to be the critical period for susceptibility to vitamin A-associated birth defects such as craniofacial abnormalities and abnormalities of the central nervous system (7135). Pregnant patients should monitor their intake of pre-formed vitamin A (retinol or retinyl ester). This form of vitamin A is found in several foods including animal products, some fortified breakfast cereals, and dietary supplements (3066).

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HEPATOTOXIC DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = C Theoretically, taking high doses of vitamin A in combination with other potentially hepatotoxic drugs might increase the risk of liver disease.  Details The tolerable upper intake level (UL) is the highest level of intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Doses of vitamin A above the UL can cause hepatotoxicity, ranging from elevated liver enzymes to liver failure (7135,82554).

RETINOIDS Interaction Rating = Major Do not take this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = D Concomitant use of retinoids with vitamin A supplements might produce supratherapeutic vitamin A levels.  Details Retinoids, which are vitamin A derivatives, could have additive toxic effects when taken with vitamin A supplements (3046).

TETRACYCLINE ANTIBIOTICS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, taking tetracycline antibiotics with high doses of vitamin A can increase the risk of pseudotumor cerebri.  Details Benign intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri) can occur with tetracyclines and with acute or chronic vitamin A toxicity. Case reports suggest that taking tetracyclines and vitamin A concurrently can increase the risk of this condition (10545,10546,10547). Avoid high doses of vitamin A in people taking tetracyclines chronically.

WARFARIN (Coumadin) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, high doses of vitamin A could increase the risk of bleeding with warfarin.  Details Vitamin A toxicity is associated with hemorrhage and hypoprothrombinemia, possibly due to vitamin K antagonism (505). Advise patients taking warfarin to avoid doses of vitamin A above the tolerable upper intake level of 10,000 IU/day for adults.

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General ...Orally, vitamin A is generally well-tolerated at doses below the tolerable upper intake level (UL).
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: In very high doses, vitamin A can cause pseudotumor cerebri, pain, liver toxicity, coma, and even death.

Dermatologic ...Chronic oral use of large amounts of vitamin A causes symptoms of vitamin A toxicity including dry skin and lips; cracking, scaling, and itchy skin; skin redness and rash; hyperpigmentation; shiny skin, and massive skin peeling (7135,95051). Hypervitaminosis A can cause brittle nails, cheilitis, gingivitis, and hair loss (15,95051). Adverse effects from a single ingestion of a large dose of vitamin A is more common in young children than adults (15). In children, approximately 25,000 IU/kg can cause skin redness and generalized peeling of the skin a few days later and may last for several weeks (15).

Gastrointestinal ...There is some evidence that oral vitamin A supplementation might increase the risk of diarrhea in children. Although vitamin A can prevent diarrhea and reduce mortality in malnourished children, doses as low as 10,000 IU weekly for 40 weeks have been associated with diarrhea in well-nourished children (319). Diarrhea (82326,82389), nausea (7135,100329), abdominal pain (95051), abdominal fullness (100329), and vomiting (7135,82559,95051,95055,109755) have been reported following use of large doses of oral vitamin A. Adverse effects from a single ingestion of a large dose of vitamin A is more common in young children than adults (15). In children, approximately 25,000 IU/kg can cause vomiting and diarrhea (15). Chronic use of large amounts of vitamin A causes symptoms of vitamin A toxicity including anorexia, abdominal discomfort, and nausea and vomiting (7135).

Genitourinary ...Hypervitaminosis A can cause reduced menstrual flow (15). Intravaginally, all-trans retinoic acid can cause vaginal discharge, itching, irritation, and burning (9199).

Hematologic ...Hypervitaminosis A can cause spider angiomas, anemia, leukopenia, leukocytosis, and thrombocytopenia (15,95051).

Hepatic ...Since the liver is the main storage site for vitamin A, hypervitaminosis A can cause hepatotoxicity, with elevated liver enzymes such as alanine aminotransferase (ALT, formerly SGPT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST, formerly SGOT), as well as fibrosis, cirrhosis, hepatomegaly, portal hypertension, and death (6377,7135,95051).

Musculoskeletal ...Vitamin A can increase the risk for osteoporosis and fractures. Observational research has found that chronic, high intake of vitamin A 10,000 IU or more per day is associated with an increased risk of osteoporosis and hip fracture in postmenopausal adults, as well as overall risk of fracture in middle-aged males (7712,7713,9190). A meta-analysis of these and other large observational studies shows that high dietary intake of vitamin A or retinol is associated with a 23% to 29% greater risk of hip fracture when compared with low dietary intake (107294). High serum levels of vitamin A as retinol also increase the risk of fracture in males. Males with high serum retinol levels are seven times more likely to fracture a hip than those with lower serum retinol levels (9190). Vitamin A damage to bone can occur subclinically, without signs or symptoms of hypervitaminosis A. Some researchers are concerned that consumption of vitamin A fortified foods such as margarine and low-fat dairy products in addition to vitamin A or multivitamin supplements might cause excessive serum retinol levels. Older people have higher levels of vitamin A and might be at increased risk for vitamin A-induced osteoporosis.
Vitamin A's effects on bone resorption could lead to hypercalcemia (95051).
Hypervitaminosis can cause slow growth, premature epiphyseal closure, painful hyperostosis of the long bones, general joint pain, osteosclerosis, muscle pain, and calcium loss from the bones (15,95051). One child experienced severe bone pain after taking vitamin A 600,000 IU daily for more than 3 months (95051). Vitamin A was discontinued and symptoms lessened over a period of 2 weeks. The patient made a full recovery 2 months later.

Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, adverse effects from a single large dose of vitamin A are more common in young children than adults (15). Headache, increased cerebrospinal fluid pressure, vertigo, and blurred vision have been reported following an acute oral dose of vitamin A 500,000 IU (7135). In children, approximately 25,000 IU/kg can cause headache, irritability, drowsiness, dizziness, delirium, and coma (15). Chronic use of large amounts of vitamin A causes symptoms of vitamin A toxicity including fatigue, malaise, lethargy, and irritability (7135).
There are reports of bulging of the anterior fontanelle associated with an acute high oral dose of vitamin A in infants (7135,90784,95053,95054). In children, approximately 25,000 IU/kg can cause increased intracranial pressure with bulging fontanelles in infants (15). Also, muscular incoordination has been reported following short-term high doses of vitamin A (7135).
A case of intracranial hypertension involving diffuse headaches and brief loss of vision has been reported secondary to topical use of vitamin A. The patient was using over-the-counter vitamin A preparations twice daily including Avotin 0.05% cream, Retin-A gel 0.01%, and Isotrexin gel containing isotretinoin 0.05% and erythromycin 2%, for treatment of facial acne. Upon exam, the patient was noted to have bilateral optic disc edema. The patient discontinued use of topical vitamin A products. Two months later, the patient reported decreased headaches and an improvement in bilateral optic disc edema was seen (95056).

Ocular/Otic ...In children, oral vitamin A approximately 25,000 IU/kg can cause swelling of the optic disk, bulging eyeballs, and visual disturbances (15). Adverse effects from a single ingestion of a large dose of vitamin A are more common in young children than adults (15).

Oncologic ...There is concern that high intake of vitamin A might increase some forms of cancer. Population research suggests high vitamin A intake might increase the risk of gastric carcinoma (9194).

Psychiatric ...Chronic oral use of large amounts of vitamin A causes symptoms of vitamin A toxicity, which can include symptoms that mimic severe depression or schizophrenic disorder (7135).

Pulmonary/Respiratory ...There is some evidence that oral vitamin A supplementation might increase the risk of pneumonia and diarrhea in children. Although vitamin A can prevent diarrhea and reduce mortality in malnourished children, doses as low as 10,000 IU weekly for 40 weeks have been associated with pneumonia and diarrhea in well-nourished children (319). In preschool children, high-dose vitamin A also increases the risk of respiratory infection (82288).

Other ...Chronic use of large amounts of vitamin A (>25,000 IU daily for more than 6 years or 100,000 IU daily for more than 6 months) can cause symptoms of vitamin A toxicity including mild fever and excessive sweating (7135). High intakes of vitamin A may result in a failure to gain weight normally in children and weight loss in adults (15).

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